Which Statement Below Best Explains The Balance Evident In This Painting

Visual appearance of a creative work, shared with other works of the aforementioned movement or schoolhouse

In the visual arts, style is a "...distinctive manner which permits the grouping of works into related categories"^[1] or "...whatever distinctive, and therefore recognizable, way in which an human activity is performed or an artifact fabricated or ought to exist performed and made".^[2] Information technology refers to the visual appearance of a work of art that relates information technology to other works by the same artist or one from the same flow, grooming, location, "schoolhouse", art movement or archaeological civilization: "The notion of style has long been the art historian's principal mode of classifying works of art. By mode he selects and shapes the history of fine art".^[3]

Style is often divided into the general style of a period, country or cultural group, group of artists or art move, and the individual style of the artist within that group style. Divisions within both types of styles are often made, such every bit between "early on", "middle" or "late".^[4] In some artists, such equally Picasso for case, these divisions may be marked and easy to run across; in others, they are more subtle. Style is seen as usually dynamic, in nigh periods e'er changing past a gradual process, though the speed of this varies greatly, from the very slow development in style typical of prehistoric art or Ancient Egyptian art to the rapid changes in Modernistic fine art styles. Fashion often develops in a series of jumps, with relatively sudden changes followed by periods of slower development.

After dominating academic discussion in art history in the 19th and early 20th centuries, so-called "style art history" has come under increasing set on in contempo decades, and many art historians now prefer to avoid stylistic classifications where they can.^[5]

Overview [edit]

Any piece of fine art is in theory capable of being analysed in terms of manner; neither periods nor artists can avert having a mode, except past complete incompetence,^{[half dozen]} and conversely natural objects or sights cannot be said to have a style, as way just results from choices made by a maker.^[7] Whether the artist makes a conscious choice of style, or tin can identify his own style, inappreciably matters. Artists in recent developed societies tend to be highly conscious of their ain style, arguably over-witting, whereas for earlier artists stylistic choices were probably "largely unselfconscious".^[8]

Most stylistic periods are identified and divers later by art historians, but artists may cull to define and name their own style. The names of most older styles are the invention of fine art historians and would not have been understood by the practitioners of those styles. Some originated as terms of derision, including Gothic, Baroque, and Rococo.^[9] Cubism on the other mitt was a conscious identification made by a few artists; the word itself seems to have originated with critics rather than painters, only was rapidly accustomed by the artists.

Western fine art, like that of some other cultures, most notably Chinese art, has a marked tendency to revive at intervals "archetype" styles from the past.^[10] In critical analysis of the visual arts, the style of a work of art is typically treated equally distinct from its iconography, which covers the subject and the content of the work, though for Jas Elsner this distinction is "not, of class, true in whatsoever bodily instance; only it has proved rhetorically extremely useful".^[xi]

History of the concept [edit]

Classical fine art criticism and the relatively few medieval writings on aesthetics did non greatly develop a concept of style in art, or analysis of information technology,^[12] and though Renaissance and Baroque writers on fine art are greatly concerned with what nosotros would call style, they did not develop a coherent theory of it, at to the lowest degree outside architecture:

Artistic styles shift with cultural conditions; a self-evident truth to any modern art historian, but an extraordinary thought in this period [Early Renaissance and earlier]. Nor is it clear that any such idea was articulated in artifact... Pliny was circumspect to changes in ways of fine art-making, but he presented such changes as driven by technology and wealth. Vasari, as well, attributes the strangeness and, in his view the deficiencies, of earlier art to lack of technological know-how and cultural sophistication.^[13]

Giorgio Vasari set out a hugely influential merely much-questioned account of the development of manner in Italian painting (mainly) from Giotto to his own Mannerist menstruum. He stressed the evolution of a Florentine style based on disegno or line-based drawing, rather than Venetian colour. With other Renaissance theorists similar Leon Battista Alberti he continued classical debates over the best residual in art between the realistic depiction of nature and idealization of information technology; this debate was to continue until the 19th century and the advent of Modernism.^[xiv]

The theorist of Neoclassicism, Johann Joachim Winckelmann, analysed the stylistic changes in Greek classical art in 1764, comparing them closely to the changes in Renaissance art, and "Georg Hegel codified the notion that each historical period will have a typical style", casting a very long shadow over the written report of style.^[xv] Hegel is often attributed with the invention of the High german word Zeitgeist, but he never actually used the word, although in Lectures on the Philosophy of History, he uses the phrase der Geist seiner Zeit (the spirit of his time), writing that "no man tin surpass his ain fourth dimension, for the spirit of his time is as well his ain spirit."^[16]

Constructing schemes of the period styles of historic art and architecture was a major business organisation of 19th century scholars in the new and initially mostly German-speaking field of art history, with important writers on the wide theory of mode including Carl Friedrich von Rumohr, Gottfried Semper, and Alois Riegl in his Stilfragen of 1893, with Heinrich Wölfflin and Paul Frankl standing the debate in the 20th century.^[17] Paul Jacobsthal and Josef Strzygowski are among the art historians who followed Riegl in proposing grand schemes tracing the manual of elements of styles beyond nifty ranges in fourth dimension and space. This type of fine art history is also known equally formalism, or the study of forms or shapes in art.^[18]

Semper, Wölfflin, and Frankl, and later Ackerman, had backgrounds in the history of architecture, and like many other terms for period styles, "Romanesque" and "Gothic" were initially coined to describe architectural styles, where major changes between styles tin be clearer and more easy to define, not least because style in compages is easier to replicate by following a prepare of rules than style in figurative art such as painting. Terms originated to describe architectural periods were oft subsequently practical to other areas of the visual arts, and and so more widely still to music, literature and the general culture.^[19]

In architecture stylistic change often follows, and is made possible by, the discovery of new techniques or materials, from the Gothic rib vault to mod metal and reinforced concrete construction. A major surface area of debate in both fine art history and archæology has been the extent to which stylistic change in other fields like painting or pottery is also a response to new technical possibilities, or has its own impetus to develop (the kunstwollen of Riegl), or changes in response to social and economic factors affecting patronage and the conditions of the artist, as current thinking tends to emphasize, using less rigid versions of Marxist fine art history.^[20]

Although fashion was well-established as a cardinal component of art historical assay, seeing it as the over-riding cistron in art history had fallen out of style by Earth War II, as other ways of looking at art were developing,^[21] besides as a reaction against the emphasis on mode; for Svetlana Alpers, "the normal invocation of mode in art history is a depressing affair indeed".^[22] Co-ordinate to James Elkins "In the afterwards 20th century criticisms of way were aimed at farther reducing the Hegelian elements of the concept while retaining it in a course that could be more easily controlled".^[23] Meyer Schapiro, James Ackerman, Ernst Gombrich and George Kubler (The Shape of Time: Remarks on the History of Things, 1962) have made notable contributions to the debate, which has also fatigued on wider developments in critical theory.^[24] In 2010 Jas Elsner put it more strongly: "For almost the whole of the 20th century, style art history has been the indisputable king of the discipline, but since the revolutions of the seventies and eighties the king has been dead",^[25] though his article explores ways in which "fashion art history" remains live, and his comment would hardly exist applicable to archeology.

The apply of terms such equally Counter-Maniera appears to be in turn down, as impatience with such "way labels" grows among fine art historians. In 2000 Marcia B. Hall, a leading art historian of 16th-century Italian painting and mentee of Sydney Joseph Freedberg (1914–1997), who invented the term, was criticised by a reviewer of her After Raphael: Painting in Primal Italy in the Sixteenth Century for her "fundamental flaw" in standing to utilize this and other terms, despite an apologetic "Note on style labels" at the beginning of the book and a promise to keep their apply to a minimum.^[26]

A rare contempo effort to create a theory to explain the process driving changes in artistic style, rather than but theories of how to draw and categorize them, is by the behavioural psychologist Colin Martindale, who has proposed an evolutionary theory based on Darwinian principles.^[27] However this cannot exist said to take gained much support amid art historians.

Private manner [edit]

Traditional fine art history has besides placed great emphasis on the individual style, sometimes called the signature style,^[28] of an artist: "the notion of personal way—that individuality can be uniquely expressed not but in the fashion an artist draws, but likewise in the stylistic quirks of an writer'southward writing (for example)— is perhaps an axiom of Western notions of identity".^[29] The identification of individual styles is especially of import in the attribution of works to artists, which is a dominant gene in their valuation for the art market, higher up all for works in the Western tradition since the Renaissance. The identification of individual mode in works is "essentially assigned to a group of specialists in the field known as connoisseurs",^[30] a group who middle in the art trade and museums, oft with tensions between them and the community of bookish art historians.^[31]

The exercise of connoisseurship is largely a matter of subjective impressions that are difficult to analyse, but also a thing of knowing details of technique and the "hand" of different artists. Giovanni Morelli (1816 – 1891) pioneered the systematic study of the scrutiny of diagnostic pocket-sized details that revealed artists' scarcely conscious shorthand and conventions for portraying, for example, ears or hands, in Western old principal paintings. His techniques were adopted by Bernard Berenson and others, and have been applied to sculpture and many other types of art, for example past Sir John Beazley to Attic vase painting.^[32] Personal techniques tin be important in analysing private style. Though artists' training was before Modernism essentially imitative, relying on taught technical methods, whether learnt every bit an amateur in a workshop or afterward as a student in an academy, there was always room for personal variation. The idea of technical "secrets" closely guarded by the master who adult them, is a long-standing topos in art history from Vasari'south probably mythical account of Jan van Eyck to the secretive habits of Georges Seurat.^[33]

However the thought of personal style is certainly non limited to the Western tradition. In Chinese art it is just as securely held, but traditionally regarded as a cistron in the appreciation of some types of fine art, higher up all calligraphy and literati painting, only not others, such as Chinese porcelain;^[34] a stardom too oftentimes seen in the so-called decorative arts in the West. Chinese painting likewise allowed for the expression of political and social views by the artist a skillful deal earlier than is usually detected in the West.^[35] Calligraphy, besides regarded as a fine art in the Islamic globe and East Asia, brings a new surface area inside the ambit of personal style; the platonic of Western calligraphy tends to exist to suppress private style, while graphology, which relies upon information technology, regards itself as a science.

The painter Edward Edwards said in his Anecdotes of Painters (1808): "Mr. Gainsborough's style of penciling was so peculiar to himself, that his piece of work needed no signature".^[36] Examples of strongly individual styles include: the Cubist art of Pablo Picasso, the Pop Art way^[37] of Andy Warhol, Impressionist mode of Vincent Van Gogh, Drip Painting by Jackson Pollock

Style [edit]

"Manner" is a related term, ofttimes used for what is in result a sub-division of a style, perchance focused on particular points of style or technique.^[38] While many elements of period style can be reduced to characteristic forms or shapes, that can adequately be represented in simple line-drawn diagrams, "manner" is more ofttimes used to mean the overall style and atmosphere of a work, especially complex works such every bit paintings, that cannot so easily be subject to precise analysis. It is a somewhat outdated term in academic art history, avoided because it is imprecise. When used it is often in the context of imitations of the individual style of an artist, and it is 1 of the hierarchy of discreet or diplomatic terms used in the fine art trade for the relationship betwixt a piece of work for sale and that of a well-known artist, with "Manner of Rembrandt" suggesting a distanced relationship between the style of the piece of work and Rembrandt's own mode. The "Explanation of Cataloguing Practise" of the auctioneers Christie'south' explains that "Style of..." in their auction catalogues means "In our opinion a piece of work executed in the creative person's mode simply of a later date".^[39] Mannerism, derived from the Italian maniera ("style") is a specific stage of the general Renaissance style, but "manner" can be used very widely.

Way in archaeology [edit]

In archaeology, despite modern techniques like radiocarbon dating, catamenia or cultural style remains a crucial tool in the identification and dating not merely of works of art but all classes of archaeological artefact, including purely functional ones (ignoring the question of whether purely functional artefacts exist).^[40] The identification of private styles of artists or artisans has likewise been proposed in some cases fifty-fifty for remote periods such as the Ice Age fine art of the European Upper Paleolithic.^[41]

As in fine art history, formal analysis of the morphology (shape) of individual artefacts is the starting point. This is used to construct typologies for different types of artefacts, and by the technique of seriation a relative dating based on style for a site or group of sites is achieved where scientific absolute dating techniques cannot be used, in detail where just stone, ceramic or metal artefacts or remains are available, which is often the instance.^[42] Sherds of pottery are often very numerous in sites from many cultures and periods, and fifty-fifty small pieces may be confidently dated by their style. In contrast to recent trends in academic fine art history, the succession of schools of archaeological theory in the last century, from culture-historical archaeology to processual archaeology and finally the rise of postal service-processual archaeology in recent decades has not significantly reduced the importance of the study of mode in archaeology, every bit a footing for classifying objects before further estimation.^[43]

Stylization [edit]

Stylization and stylized (or stylisation and stylised in (non-Oxford) British English, respectively) have a more specific significant, referring to visual depictions that use simplified ways of representing objects or scenes that exercise not attempt a full, precise and authentic representation of their visual appearance (mimesis or "realistic"), preferring an attractive or expressive overall depiction. More technically, information technology has been defined as "the decorative generalization of figures and objects by means of various conventional techniques, including the simplification of line, grade, and relationships of space and color",^[44] and observed that "[s]tylized art reduces visual perception to constructs of blueprint in line, surface elaboration and flattened space".^[45]

Ancient, traditional, and modern fine art, likewise as popular forms such as cartoons or animation very oft employ stylized representations, so for example The Simpsons use highly stylized depictions, as does traditional African art. The two Picasso paintings illustrated at the top of this folio prove a motility to a more than stylized representation of the homo figure inside the painter's style,^[46] and the Uffington White Horse is an example of a highly stylized prehistoric depiction of a horse. Motifs in the decorative arts such equally the palmette or arabesque are often highly stylized versions of the parts of plants.

Even in art that is in general attempting mimesis or "realism", a degree of stylization is very frequently establish in details, and especially figures or other features at a small scale, such as people or trees etc. in the distant background even of a large work. Merely this is non stylization intended to exist noticed by the viewer, except on shut test.^[47] Drawings, modelli, and other sketches not intended as finished works for sale will also very often stylize.

"Stylized" may hateful the adoption of whatsoever style in any context, and in American English is often used for the typographic style of names, as in "AT&T is also stylized as ATT and at&t": this is a specific usage that seems to have escaped dictionaries, although it is a minor extension of existing other senses of the word.^{[ citation needed ]}

Computer identification [edit]

In a 2012 experiment at Lawrence Technological Academy in Michigan, a calculator analysed approximately 1,000 paintings from 34 well-known artists using a especially developed algorithm and placed them in like mode categories to human art historians.^[48] The analysis involved the sampling of more than 4,000 visual features per piece of work of art.^[48] ^[49]

Notes [edit]

^ Fernie, Eric. Fine art History and its Methods: A critical anthology. London: Phaidon, 1995, p. 361. ISBN 978-0-7148-2991-three
^ Gombrich, 150
^ George Kubler summarizing the view of Meyer Schapiro (with whom he disagrees), quoted by Alpers in Lang, 138
^ Elkins, s. 1
^ Elkins, s. two; Kubler in Lang, 163–164; Alpers in Lang, 137–138; 161
^ George Kubler goes further "No human being acts escape style", Kubler in Lang, 167; II, 3 in his list; Elkins, south. 2
^ Lang, 177–178
^ Elsner, 106–107, 107 quoted
^ Gombrich, 131; Honour & Fleming, xiii–14; Elkins, southward. 2
^ Award & Fleming, 13
^ Elsner, 107–108, 108 quoted
^ classical authors did leave a considerable and subtle body of analysis of style in literature, especially rhetoric; run across Gombrich, 130–131
^ Nagel and Wood, 92
^ See Blunt throughout, with in item pp. 14–22 on Alberti, 28–34 on Leonardo, 61–64 on Michelangelo, 89–95 and 98–100 on Vasari
^ Elkins, southward. 2; Preziosi, 115–117; Gombrich, 136
^ Glenn Alexander Magee (2011), "Zeitgeist", The Hegel Lexicon, Continuum International Publishing Group, p. 262, ISBN9781847065919
^ Elkins, due south. two, 3; Rawson, 24
^ Rawson, 24
^ Gombrich, 129; Elsner, 104
^ Gombrich, 131–136; Elkins, s. 2; Rawson, 24–25
^ Kubler in Lang, 163
^ Alpers in Lang, 137
^ Elkins, s. 2 (quoted); see also Gombrich, 135–136
^ Elkins, southward. 2; analysed past Kubler in Lang, 164–165
^ Elsner, 98
^ Tater, 324
^ Summarized in his article "Evolution of Ancient Art: Trends in the Way of Greek Vases and Egyptian Painting", Visual Arts Enquiry, Vol. 16, No. 1(31) (Bound 1990), pp. 31–47, University of Illinois Press, JSTOR
^ Suffern, Erika (2013). "Review of The Signature Way of Frans Hals: Painting, Subjectivity, and the Marketplace in Early on Modernity". Renaissance Quarterly. 66 (1): 212–214. doi:10.1086/670435. ISSN 0034-4338.
^ Elsner, 103
^ Alpers in Lang, 139, a situation she sees every bit problematic
^ Exemplified in grumbling by Grosvenor; Crane, 214–216
^ Elsner, 103; Dictionary of Art Historians: "Giovanni Morelli"
^ Gotlieb, throughout; 469–475 on Vasari and van Eyck; 469 on Seurat.
^ Rawson, 92–102; 111–119
^ Rawson, 27
^ https://museumsandcollections.unimelb.edu.au/__data/avails/pdf_file/0003/2942274/13_Ritchie_Gainsboroughs-signature-22.pdf
^ "Pop fine art | Characteristics, Definition, Style, Movement, Types, Artists, Paintings, Prints, Examples, Lichtenstein, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 2021-10-13 .
^ "What Is Poetry?", "Petronius Arbiter", The Art World, Vol. iii, No. 6 (Mar., 1918), pp. 506–511, JSTOR
^ Christie's "Caption of Cataloguing Do" (later on lot listings). "Mode" is not used for paintings etc., but for European porcelain they give the example:"A plate in the Worcester manner" means "In our stance, a re-create or simulated of pieces made in the named factory, place or region". For examples, this painting, sold past Bonhams in 2011 as "Manner of Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn", is at present attributed in their notes to "an anonymous eighteenth-century follower of Rembrandt". This example sold by Christie'due south fetched merely £750 in 2010.
^ Kubler, George (1962). The Shape of Time : Remarks on the History of Things. New Haven and London: Yale Academy Press.Kubler, p. fourteen: "human products always contain both utility and art in varying mixtures, and no object is believable without the admixture of both"; see likewise Alpers in Lang, 140
^ Bahn & Vertut, 89
^ Thermoluminescence dating tin can be used for much ceramic material, and the developing method of Rehydroxylation dating may go widely used.
^ Review by Mary Ann Levine of The Uses of Mode in Archæology, edited by Margaret Conkey and Christine Hastorf (see further reading), pp. 779–780, American Antiquity, Vol. 58, No. iv (October., 1993), Society for American Archaeology, JSTOR
^ "Stylization" in the Keen Soviet Encyclopedia, 1979, online at The Free Dictionary
^ Clark, Willene B., A Medieval Book of Beasts: The Second-Family Bestiary, Commentary, Art, Text And Translation, p. 54, 2006, Boydell Press, ISBN 0851156827, 9780851156828, google books
^ Come across Elsner, 107 on Picasso as the paradigm of "the supremely self-conscious poseur in whatsoever style you lot similar".
^ Holloway, John, The Slumber of Apollo: Reflections on Recent Fine art, Literature, Language and the Private Consciousness, p. xxx, 1983, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521248043, 9780521248044, google books
^ ^a ^b Suzanne Tracy (ed.), "Computers Friction match Humans in Agreement Art", Scientific Computing , retrieved Nov two, 2012 This is a summary of an commodity appearing in the ACM Journal on Calculating and Cultural Heritage; the original commodity was not available at the time of this citation's insertion; citation for original publication follows: Shamir, Lior, and Jane A. Tarakhovsky. "Computer analysis of art." Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage (JOCCH) v.2 (2012): seven.
^ See too Gombrich, 140, commenting in 1968 that no such analysis was feasible at that time.

References [edit]

"Alpers in Lang": Alpers, Svetlana, "Fashion is What You Make it", in The Concept of Style, ed. Berel Lang, (Ithaca: Cornell University Printing, 1987), 137–162, google books.
Bahn, Paul G. and Vertut, Jean, Journey Through the Ice Age, University of California Press, 1997, ISBN 0520213068, 9780520213067, google books
Blunt Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italian republic, 1450–1600, 1940 (refs to 1985 edn), OUP, ISBN 0198810504
Crane, Susan A. ed, Museums and Memory, Cultural Sitings, 2000, Stanford Academy Press, ISBN 0804735646, 9780804735643, google books
Elkins, James, "Style" in Grove Fine art Online, Oxford Art Online, Oxford University Press, accessed March six, 2013, subscriber link
Elsner, Jas, "Style" in Critical Terms for Art History, Nelson, Robert Southward. and Shiff, Richard, second Edn. 2010, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226571696, 9780226571690, google books
Gombrich, E. "Style" (1968), orig. International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, ed. D. L. Sills, fifteen (New York, 1968), reprinted in Preziosi, D. (ed.) The Art of Art History: A Critical Album (come across beneath), whose page numbers are used.
Gotlieb, Marc, "The Painter'south Underground: Invention and Rivalry from Vasari to Balzac", The Art Message, Vol. 84, No. 3 (Sep., 2002), pp. 469–490, JSTOR
Grosvenor, Bendor, "On connoisseurship", article in Fine Fine art Connoisseur, 2011?, now on "art History News" website
Honour, Hugh & John Fleming. A World History of Art. 7th edition. London: Laurence King Publishing, 2009, ISBN 9781856695848
"Kubler in Lang": Kubler, George, Towards a Reductive Theory of Way, in Lang
Lang, Berel (ed.), The Concept of Mode, 1987, Ithaca: Cornell Academy Printing, ISBN 0801494397, 9780801494390, google books; includes essays by Alpers and Kubler
Murphy, Caroline P., Review of: After Raphael: Painting in Central Italy in the Sixteenth Century past Marcia B. Hall, The Catholic Historical Review, Vol. 86, No. ii (Apr., 2000), pp. 323–324, Catholic University of America Printing, JSTOR
Nagel, Alexander, and Wood, Christopher Due south., Anachronic Renaissance, 2020, Zone Books, MIT Press, ISBN 9781942130345, google books
Preziosi, D. (ed.) The Art of Art History: A Critical Anthology, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 9780714829913
Rawson, Jessica, Chinese Ornamentation: The lotus and the dragon, 1984, British Museum Publications, ISBN 0714114316